2025-12
Hispanic Peoples and the Spanish Language are Integral to American History
Sponsored by
Rep. Angela Romero (UT), Rep. Juan Candelaria (CT), Rep. Lillian Ortiz-Self (WA), Del. Joseline Peña Melnyk (MD), Rep. Adam Zabner (IA), Rep. Jose “Che” Perez Cordero (PR), Asmbr. Yudelka Tapia (NY) and Sen. Leo Jaramillo (NM).
Reported to the Caucus by the NHCSL Media and Culture Task Force
Asmbr. Yudelka Tapia (NY), Chair
Unanimously ratified by the Caucus on November 22, 2025
Hispanic contributions to the American Revolution[1]
WHEREAS, the independence of the United States was achieved not only through the efforts of the American revolutionaries but also thanks to the contributions and commitment of allies like Spain, in the form of funds, supplies, and military land and sea operations starting when Spain entered the war as a French ally in 1779; and,
WHEREAS, thousands of Hispanic soldiers and sailors, from mainland Spain, and from the territories that today are Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Guatemala, fought on land battles in several of today’s states, and in sea engagements from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic to the Caribbean and Central America, thus being of decisive strategic importance for the outcome of U.S. independence; and,
WHEREAS, the first foreign weapons for the American revolutionaries came from Spain in early 1775 in response to a petition from the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, leveraging the long-established commercial relations of New England merchants with Spanish ones like Bilbao trader Diego de Gardoqui; and,
WHEREAS, in 1779, Spain appointed Juan de Miralles as representative to the Second Continental Congress leading to several strategic and funding meetings with George Washington in his Sommerville and Morristown headquarters in New Jersey;[1] and,
WHEREAS, as a result, Spain opened her ports as refuge for Continental Navy ships and U.S. privateers; and,
WHEREAS, Spain sent a huge combat force of 11,000 soldiers[2] and 12,000 sailors aboard a hundred ships[3] to Havana in 1780 to fight in America; and,
WHEREAS, Bernardo de Gálvez, military commander and governor of Spanish Louisiana, as his predecessor, Luis de Unzaga, kept sending supplies to the American rebels up the Mississippi river during the Revolutionary War; and,
WHEREAS, Bernardo de Gálvez formed an army made up of Spanish, French, African American, Mexican, Cuban, Native American and Anglo-American troops and led the effort of Spain against British possessions in the Mississippi and along the Gulf of Mexico that came under threat at a crucial time in the war; and,
WHEREAS, Bernardo de Gálvez and his troops defeated the British at battles in Baton Rouge, Louisiana; Natchez, Mississippi; and Mobile, Alabama in 1779/1780; and,
WHEREAS, in these engagements, and throughout the war, Hispanic women like Bárbara de Arias marched along with the troops, preparing meals, washing, caring for the wounded and distributing gunpowder; and,
WHEREAS, Bernardo de Gálvez led the successful 2-month siege of Pensacola, Florida, in 1781, the longest conducted in America during the revolution, where his troops captured the capital of British West Florida and although being wounded, he demonstrated bravery that forever endeared him to the United States soldiers. His military operations favored the war of Independence effort, a fact acknowledged by George Washington himself; and,
WHEREAS, Spanish presence in the upper Missouri and the defense of Saint Louis, Missouri by Spanish troops commanded by Fernando de Leyva, plus the capture of Fort Saint Joseph, Illinois, prevented Great Britain from seizing the Western territories and launch operations against the Continental Army; and,
WHEREAS, many Hispanic men fought directly for or with the Continental Army and Navy during the Revolutionary War, like Jorge Farragut[4] who fought with the Continental Army and later joined the South Carolina Navy, or Miguel Lorenzo Yznardy, who helped defend Charleston, South Carolina during the 1780 siege; and,
WHEREAS, Spain sent military supplies and funds to the Continental Congress throughout the Revolutionary War, managed mainly by Spanish official Diego de Gardoqui, the merchant appointed for this mission by the Crown, while citizens of every territory of Spain in Europe and America, contributed with funds to the war effort against Great Britain; and,
WHEREAS, hundreds of Hispanics taken prisoners suffered and died aboard British prison ships, notably in Brooklyn, New York; and,
WHEREAS, the decisive victory at the battle of Yorktown, Virginia, was made possible by funds raised by Spanish authorities led by Francisco de Saavedra and the Hispanic peoples from Havana, Puerto Rico and Mexico, allowing pay for a month’s wages of the Continental Army and funding additional French reinforcements that joined the campaign; and,
WHEREAS, Spain conducted military operations with regulars and Hispanic militiamen under the command of Matías de Gálvez in the coasts of Nicaragua and Guatemala, between 1780 to1782 expelling British forces in the area, preventing them using these locations as military bases for fighting in North America.
WHEREAS, Spanish troops from Havana, transported aboard U.S. ships, captured the Bahamas from the British in 1782; and,
WHEREAS, on December 9, 2014, Bernardo de Gálvez’s portrait was hung in the U.S. Capitol, and seven days later, Congress approved a joint resolution granting him honorary posthumous United States citizenship; and,
WHEREAS, Spain and Hispanic peoples’ significant, far-reaching and positively impactful role in the American Revolution remains largely unknown to the American public; and,
Spanish language dominance antedates English in many states and in Puerto Rico, and is lingua franca in major American cities[6]
WHEREAS, because of Spain’s prior dominance in many areas that later became states or territories, the Spanish language is second only to Native American languages that were spoken for centuries prior to colonization in terms of continuity and longevity in the United States; and,
WHEREAS, the Spanish language first arrived in today’s United States when Columbus’ second voyage arrived in Puerto Rico in 1493. There, it has dominated uninterrupted since the founding of San Juan[7] in 1521 and remained resilient after Puerto Rico became a US territory in 1898; and,
WHEREAS, the Spanish language first arrived in the continental United States from Puerto Rico, when its Spanish governor, Juan Ponce de León, led the first expedition to Florida in 1513 and returned in 1520 for further exploration. St. Augustine, the oldest city of any current state was founded by Spanish settlers; and,
WHEREAS, by 1565, Spain “had established their first permanent colony in San Agustín [now anglicized to St. Augustine], Florida, under the leadership of Pedro Menéndez de Avilés. Between 1520 and 1570, the Spanish vigorously explored the Atlantic coast, with specific explorations taking place in the Carolinas, Virginia, Georgia and along the New England coast;” and,
WHEREAS, in 1540, Francisco Vázquez de Coronado led the first Spanish expedition into today’s US Southwest. Juan de Oñate followed in 1598, founding the city of San Gabriel de Yunque as the first Spanish capital of the territory of Santa Fe de Nuevo México but, due to resistance from Pueblo Native Americans, his successor Pedro de Peralta, move the capital to the new city of Santa Fe in 1610, making it another of the oldest cities in the United States. Other Spanish settlements were established throughout the Southwest; and,
WHEREAS, in 1763 Spain purchased Greater Luisiana from France but later resold it to France in 1804, but Spanish culture and language remained, especially in names; and,
WHEREAS, as many as 100,000 native Spanish speakers were living in the U.S. Southwest by the mid-19th century; and,
WHEREAS, “by 1835, the American immigrants, joined by a small number of native Spanish-speakers, decided to pursue independence from Mexico and establish an independent Texan republic -- thus sparking the Texas Revolution. Just one year later, Texas was established as a republic. In 1845, Texas was admitted into the United States, a move that angered the Mexicans and led to the Mexican-American War in 1846, the outcome of which was the American annexation of vast territories to the north and west of Texas in 1848;”and,
WHEREAS, though Spanish was marginalized in much of the Southwest in the years following the Mexican-American War, “the language endured in many Southwestern communities and developed into unique regional varieties that are still used as the first or second language of Hispanics;”[8] and,
WHEREAS, as Prof. Carter explains,
…linguists have identified a number of unique Spanish dialects within the United States, each with core features traceable to 16th- and 17th-century Spain. In the evolution of Spanish, many monophthongs (single vowel sounds) underwent a process of diphthongization, which combines two vowel sounds into one vocalic segment. The Spanish of Colorado, for example, exhibits forms with the earlier, monophthongal vowels instead of the later diphthongal developments. Many words that begin with /h/ in Spanish (hijo, “son”) began with /f/ in Latin. As Spanish evolved, the /f/ slowly changed to /h/, passing through several intermediary stages in the process. Many lexical items in Coloradan Spanish that would be /h/-initial in other varieties of Spanish still exhibit some of the intermediary stages in the evolution of this development.
Other Spanish varieties in the United States (New Mexican, Arizonan, New Mexican, Texan, etc.) that evolved independently of Spanish on the Iberian Peninsula and in Latin America show other dialect features, such as the reduction of consonant clusters (bsà s; ptà t, etc.) and the aspiration of word final /s/ (vamoh for vamos). Additionally, varieties of Spanish in the United States are distinctive because of their unique contact situations with various Native American languages. Some words were borrowed into Spanish from indigenous languages in the Southwest, though these contributions are generally regarded as relatively slight;[9] and,
WHEREAS, Spanish became the most studied non-English language in high schools and universities by World War II[10] and has remained so since, with 70% of recent high school graduates completing at least one year-long Spanish class, 56.4% completing at least two, and 22% completing at least three;[11] and,
WHEREAS, geopolitical and commercial policies of the United States led to the growth of the established Hispanic communities and to new Hispanic communities through immigration in the late 19th century, and throughout the 20th century through today, making dialects of Spanish namely Mexican, Puerto Rican and Cuban, the noticeably dominant or co-dominant language in many cities and towns near the Southern border, in Puerto Rico and central Florida, and in the Miami metropolitan area, respectively; and,
WHEREAS, today, Hispanics are almost one fifth (19.5%) of the US population and growing; and,
WHEREAS, 44.9 million Americans over 5 years old (13.9%[12]) speak Spanish at home, [13]even though most of them (58.9%) can speak English very well. These Spanish-at-home speakers include 10.1% of all adult citizens (24.7 million) of which 71.5% can speak English very well. This makes Spanish by far the most widely spoken language at home in the United States other than English;[14] and,
WHEREAS, additionally, 3 million Americans over 5 years old in Puerto Rico (94.8%) speak Spanish at home;[15] and,
WHEREAS, observational studies suggest that Spanish is also “emerging as an essential lingua franca for people from different language backgrounds who end up on the migrant trail to the United States… [where formerly] non-Spanish-speaking migrants learn Spanish under a variety of circumstances and learn different Spanish varieties …and bring that knowledge with them to the United States, where it is immediately useful for communicating with their fellow asylum seekers and service providers” and will likely impact the future of Spanish in the United States;[16] and,
Government policy should reflect the importance of the Spanish language and Hispanic culture and peoples to US history
WHEREAS, the gallantry and valor of Hispanic Americans fighting for the United States is legendary and has been immortalized in public monuments like Farragut Square in Washington, DC, and the Congressional Gold Medal awarded to the 65th Infantry Regiment; and,
WHEREAS, in 1923, the Supreme Court recognized that the “protection of the Constitution extends to all, to those who speak other languages as well as to those born with English on the tongue;”[17] and,
WHEREAS, in 1974, the Supreme Court held that Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits conduct that has a disproportionate effect on persons of Limited English Proficiency (LEP) because such conduct constitutes national-origin discrimination;[18] and,
WHEREAS, in 1968, President Lyndon Johnson signed National Hispanic Heritage Week into law; and,
WHEREAS; National Hispanic Heritage Month was first proclaimed by President George H. W. Bush on September 14, 1989; and,
WHEREAS, in 2000, President Bill Clinton established a broad policy of access to the Spanish language, and other languages as appropriate, in the federal government,[19] coupled with a LEP Guidance document from the Department of Justice that warned that “a federal aid recipient's failure to assure that people who are not proficient in English can effectively participate in and benefit from programs and activities may constitute national origin discrimination prohibited by Title VI” of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and creating a four-factor test for grantees to decide what steps to take to provide meaningful access to their programs and activities for LEP persons ;[20] and,
WHEREAS, this Caucus has called for the integration and availability of Spanish language materials in numerous public policies from legislative work[21] to Medicaid websites[22] and commercial driver’s license exams;[23] and,
WHEREAS, in Resolution 2019-13, this Caucus called for ethnic studies be integrated into throughout all K-12 courses because it increases student interest in school, helps students appreciate different viewpoints, and allows students of color identify more with historical figures; and,
WHEREAS, in Resolution 2018-03, this Caucus called for the creation of a National Museum of the American Latino on the National Mall; and,
WHEREAS, despite all this, on March 1, 2025, President Trump signed an Executive Order ostensibly adopting English as the official language of the United States and explicitly revoking President Clinton’s the language access policy;[24] and,
WHEREAS, a further Trump Executive Order implicitly blames Spanish language users (and the hard of hearing) for decreasing road safety and ordered reversing the requirement by the Obama administration that Reasonable Accommodation be provided to persons who do not speak English as their primary language;[25] and,
WHEREAS, the new LEP Guidance from the Department of Justice rescinds all prior guidance favorable to LEP persons, suspends and announces the replacement of materials from the dedicated website LEP.gov, limits the use of Spanish language and other non-English languages only to cases explicitly mandated by law or to guidance it will issue in the future, asks agencies to consider English-only services, encourages AI translations when translation is needed, demands that any mission-critical translation include a note that “English is the official language and authoritative version,” and promises that the Justice Department would “lead a coordinated effort to minimize non-essential multilingual services, redirect resources toward English-language education and assimilation.”[26]
Conclusions
THEREFORE, BE IT RESOLVED, that the National Hispanic Caucus of State Legislators (NHCSL) honors the sacrifice of Bernardo de Gálvez and many other Hispanics, in their contributions to the American Revolution; acknowledges the pivotal role of Spain and Hispanic America in the triumph of the American Revolution; and calls for their efforts to be recognized, taught in schools as part of the broader ethnic studies integration, included in publications and museums like the National Museum of the American Latino on the National Mall, and honored accordingly; and,
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED, that the National Hispanic Caucus of State Legislators (NHCSL) calls on the Congress and the President to undo or revoke Executive Order 14224; to correctly enforce Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, maintaining access to non-English languages as was required by Executive Order 13166 and the old LEP Guidance of August 2000; and to expand the use of the Spanish language beyond that to be even more inclusive, reflecting the needs of the American people and the historical and integral importance of Spanish to millions of Americans.
IN ITS MEETING OF JULY 28, 2025, THE NHCSL MEDIA AND CULTURE TASK FORCE UNANIMOUSLY RECOMMENDED THIS RESOLUTION TO THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE FOR APPROVAL.
THE NHCSL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE UNANIMOUSLY APPROVED THIS RESOLUTION ON AUGUST 5, 2025, AT ITS MEETING IN BOSTON, MA.
THE NATIONAL HISPANIC CAUCUS OF STATE LEGISLATORS UNANIMOUSLY RATIFIED THIS RESOLUTION AT ITS ANNUAL MEETING OF NOVEMBER 22, 2025 IN OKLAHOMA CITY, OKLAHOMA.
[1] NHCSL acknowledges the contributions to this section as factual sources of historians Prof. Larrie D. Ferreiro, author of Brothers at Arms: American Independence and the Men of France and Spain Who Saved It; and José Manuel Guerrero Acosta, director of Unveiling Memories: Spain and the Hispanic contribution to American independence.
[2] An illness contracted during this mission led to the May 1780 death of Miralles in Morristown.
[3] At the time fewer than 30,000 men served in the Continental Army and no more than 13,000 in any one place.
[4] For comparison the Continental Navy had a total of 65 ships throughout the war.
[5] Anglicized to George Farragut. He was later the father of Civil War Union Navy Admiral David Farragut of “damn the torpedoes” fame.
[6] Mostly sourced from Phillip M. Carter, Spanish in the U.S.: Correcting Myths (PBS and North Carolina State University)
[7] San Juan (originally Puerto Rico) is the oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Puerto Rico and the United States. Caparra predated it in 1508 but was abandoned when the capital moved to San Juan.
[8] Phillip M. Carter, Spanish in the U.S.: Correcting Myths (PBS and North Carolina State University) (citing Post 1933; Rael 1939; and Ornstein 1951).
[9] Phillip M. Carter, Spanish in the U.S.: Correcting Myths (PBS and North Carolina State University).
[10] Denise Valenti, Lozano discusses ‘An American Language: The History of Spanish in the United States’ (Princeton University Office of Communications, Nov. 6, 2018).
[11] U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2000, 2009, and 2019 High School Transcript Study (HSTS). (Prepared April 2022.) (Only 12.3% of students complete any credits in French, the third most popular language after English and Spanish.)
[12] Of the population over 5 years old.
[13] This number does not include millions of other Spanish speakers who do not speak Spanish at home.
[14] U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. Department of Commerce. "Language Spoken at Home." American Community Survey, 2024 ACS 1-Year Estimates Subject Tables, Table S1601. (The 44.9 million Spanish-at-home speakers also include 8.2 million minors 5-17 (of which 86.4% are citizens and 75.8% speak English very well) and 12 million non-citizen adults. For context, 29.2 million (9%) Americans over 5 years old speak languages at home other than English or Spanish; those numbers are 18 million or 7.3% among adult citizens.)
[15] U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. Department of Commerce. "Language Spoken at Home." American Community Survey, 2024 ACS 1-Year Estimates Subject Tables, Table S1601.
[16] Brendan H. O’Connor, Spanish as a Migrant Lingua Franca. (Anthropology News, February 14, 2022).
[17] Meyer v. Nebraska, 262 U.S. 390, 401 (1923).
[18] Lau v. Nichols, 414 U.S. 563 (1974)
[19] Executive Order 13166 of August 11, 2000, Improving Access to Services for Persons with Limited English Proficiency
[20] Department of Justice, Enforcement of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964-National Origin Discrimination Against Persons With Limited English Proficiency; Policy Guidance (August 11, 2000)
[24] Executive Order 14224 of March 1, 2025, Designating English as the Official Language of the United States.
[25] Executive Order 14286 of April 28, 2025, Enforcing Commonsense Rules of the Road for America's Truck Drivers.
[26] Attorney General Pam Bondi, Memorandum on Implementation of Executive Order 14224 (DOJ, July 14, 2025).